As technology advances and global demand for sustainable products increases, the resources used to create batteries become more and more desirable. Over the last two decades, the use of cobalt in batteries has increased 26-fold, creating a drastic increase in cobalt mining activity. Many battery manufacturers source their cobalt from mines in third-world countries, where vast mineral wealth is extracted with loose regulations and poor working conditions, allowing for cheap prices. One of the most affected countries is the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where cobalt miners suffer from extremely poor working conditions and staggeringly low pay, creating an environment where child labour, slavery, and human rights violations are prevalent. 

Powering the New World

Cobalt mining has become one of the main economic activities in the DRC, accounting for around 30% of the country's GDP and 95% of its exports. Cobalt mines in the DRC are responsible for 73% of the global cobalt supply, an industry with a yearly global market value of $9.6 billion. The profitability of this sector has caused rapid expansion throughout the country, facilitated in many cases by a lack of comprehensive regulation. In the past decade, these cobalt mines - and artisanal mines in partcular - have been host to a myriad of human rights violations. Artisanal mines, responsible for 15% of the world's supply of cobalt, are mostly independent and informal mines where miners work under precarious conditions. 

Workers in these mines often lack proper tools, meaning many dig into the earth with their bare hands. Cobalt mines sell to larger companies and, as they are informal in nature, are not governed by the regulations that do exist. These mines are mostly located in rural areas where poverty is rampant, causing the population to depend on mining activities despite low wages and poor working conditions. Bribes is widespread and regulations are rarely enforced, exacerbating the poor working conditions in these mines. Miners are also not provided with any protective gear, causing workers, and especially children, to be exposed to toxic chemicals that cause vomiting, nausea, cardiac issues, and even cancer. Various workers also suffer from infertility, with women present in mines being exposed to an increased risk of birth defects. Reports recount women working in mines with their babies wrapped around their backs and their older children working alongside them in pools of toxic chemicals. The diseases and deaths caused by these conditions are impossible to quantify, as accidents in mines are hardly ever recorded, let alone publicly recognised by the government. A mother of a worker who died in a mining tunnel accident highlighted the indifference toward worker deaths. This mine collapsed in Central DRC in September of 2019 and claimed the lives of 63 workers, yet no company or individual took responsibility for the tragedy. Most information regarding poor working conditions and accidents is anecdotal as mines engage in stringent oversight to prevent reporting; witnesses describe mining areas where secrecy is enforced by security personnel. 

The presence of children in cobalt mines has drawn the most attention internationally. Estimates show that 20% of small-scale artisanal cobalt mines employ child workers as young as three, paying them no more than two dollars per day. Research conducted by Amnesty International and Afrewatch has shown that children in cobalt mines work upwards of 12 hours per day, and are subject to the same poor conditions as adult workers. These children carry out arduous tasks, including hauling heavy metals and materials - with no overhead protection or gear to prevent injury. Much like adult workers, children are exposed to toxic substances and gases, yet they are especially susceptible as these ailments stunt their growth. A witness identified a Chinese-owned mine in Kasulo where children work in environments with radioactive minerals, contracting various diseases as a result. Children in these mines are forced to crawl into small spaces to extract minerals, often resulting in injury and death. 

Various international aid organisations have led initiatives to prohibit the presence of children in these mines. A collaboration between UNICEF and the Global Battery Alliance seeks to reintegrate children who worked in mines into education. Further efforts by UNICEF and RCS Global Group have developed tools to identify child-rights infringements, seeking to develop an efficient protective system for child slaves. Despite the advances provided by these initiatives, child labour is still prevalent in cobalt mines. Children work out of necessity, as their poverty-stricken families are unable to pay for food, clothing, or education. As long as poverty ravages villages near mines, children will be forced to resort to arduous labour to help keep their families afloat. 

Poor mining practices in formal and informal mines alike severely impact the environment. The chemicals created in cobalt mines are toxic and the improper disposal of these substances harms the health of those working in the mines, as well as those living near them. Chemicals from cobalt mines are often disposed of in rivers, polluting water supplies for nearby villages and towns. The contaminated water is often radioactive and contains carcinogens, gravely affecting those reliant on these rivers for drinking water. The river in Lubumbashi, a neighbouring city hosting over 2 million people, has become barren due to these chemical disposals. Various residents have reported a lack of fish in rivers due to the mines’ disposal of acid and waste, along with ailments from exposure to polluted air, including metabolic disorders and tumours. Pollution has spread to other areas, such as the Katapula, a main waterway of the Congo River, that is now littered with toxic metals. The people who use this river as a source of food or drinking water have contracted respiratory disorders and seen an increase in birth defects. The practice of improper disposal also harms crops and impacts soil fertility, leading to decreases in agricultural production and, in turn, food availability. The DRC's agricultural sector already faces setbacks and is unable to meet domestic food demands, meaning further hindrances to production could reduce availability for the 6.7 million food insecure people in the country.

Poor working conditions and improper disposals are prevalent due to the corruption that pervades the cobalt mining sector. In December 2022, Glencore, a Swiss mining company operating in the DRC, paid $180 million to settle claims of corruption, adding to the $1.6 billion in fines they faced due to fraudulent activity. The company has admitted to bribing African nations, namely the DRC. Applying fines and financial sanctions to companies that generate billions in revenue from cobalt mining practices is ineffective and will do little to prevent corruption. Despite the case against Glencore, the vast majority of cobalt-related corruption goes unchecked.

The involvement of international corporations in cobalt mining operations creates difficulties in enforcing regulations. China is one of the most prominent stakeholders in cobalt mining in the DRC. As of 2023, private and state-owned Chinese companies control 80% of all cobalt mining operations in the DRC. China, the largest refined cobalt producer in the world, is heavily invested in obtaining a constant flow of cobalt from the DRC. One of the ways they protect their investments is by supporting the DRC's military in their efforts to protect and monitor cobalt mines. Having influence over military forces and building relationships with military leaders has helped Chinese companies skirt regulations and ensure a constant flow of cheap cobalt. This impunity also extends to other countries, with tech giants in the US successfully dodging accountability for their abusive operations. In 2021, a US judge dismissed the case against Apple, Dell, Microsoft, and Tesla for the deaths of workers in cobalt mines, adding to the list of companies that ignored precarious working conditions in mines and escaped conviction. Of these deaths, many were children; as many as 11 children suffered broken limbs and spines, and five others died due to tunnel collapses or a lack of mine shaft protection. This lack of accountability has enabled mining companies to maintain poor mining infrastructure to reduce costs, causing further deaths.

Departing from Cobalt

The cobalt mining issue has gained international relevance over the past few years, prompting various companies that use cobalt to purchase less. As concerns for environmental, social, and corporate governance (ESG) increase, many companies are looking into the supply chains of their products to ensure humane and sustainable practices. Apple, the tech company with the second-highest sales revenue in the world, uses cobalt for all the batteries in its products. Their resolve to use 100% recycled cobalt in their products by 2025 would drastically reduce their reliance on cobalt produced in the DRC. While this would help to reduce worker abuses, it would also have a starkly negative economic impact on the Congolese that rely on mining employment to sustain themselves.

Other companies are also opting for cobalt-free battery alternatives in light of the human rights violations in cobalt mines. Many tech giants - including Samsung, Panasonic, and Tesla - have already begun their transition to lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries. Apart from having fewer ethical implications, these alternatives are cheaper, providing financial incentives for companies seeking to reduce costs. Tesla has increased the affordability of its products through the use of LFP batteries, and tech companies seeking to provide competitive prices are following in their footsteps. More alternatives to cobalt are in development; nickel is a prime candidate, boasting higher energy density and fewer emissions in its extraction.

Dependency and Withdrawal

Although these initiatives seek to eliminate the negative effects of cobalt mining, a drastic reduction in demand for cobalt could end up causing more harm than good. The combined decrease in demand has caused a 30% fall in cobalt prices as of June, with the possibility of prices dropping further as more companies adhere to ESG initiatives. These price reductions have resulted in reduced incomes for miners in the DRC. Nearly 200,000 people are directly employed by cobalt mines in the DRC, with a million more indirectly dependent on the sector. The loss in revenue and profits will directly affect those already earning low wages in the sector, and will consequently hurt the DRC’s economy, where 62% of the population lives on less than $2.15 a day.

Instead of intentionally reducing demand for cobalt, a source of subsistence for an entire country, companies should push for a remodelling of laws, regulations, and policies that will improve working conditions and reduce the mines’ impact on the environment. These regulations should also consider finding means to reduce foreign influence, in order to reduce corruption, as the tight-knit relationship between the Congolese military and outside actors has provided fertile grounds for bribery and regulatory misconduct. This is a tall task, especially for a region where legislation is rarely passed, let alone enforced. Pressure from international institutions and countries could help accelerate these processes, however, the impact of international efforts is likely to be limited. Restricting trade would directly impact the DRC’s food-insecure population. Pushing for change in mines through economic sanctions, such as embargoes, would also see little success, as the DRC’s main cobalt importer is China, which has so far shown little initiative in improving working conditions in mines. A more viable solution to this issue is to target the companies responsible for mining abuses in the DRC, seeing as the vast majority of cobalt mining operations in the country are privately owned, and incentivize them to improve conditions in their mines. Pushing for accountability in international courts could also be effective in punishing mining companies that do not adhere to regulations, which may incentivise companies to adjust practices to avoid losses in productivity and investment.

The future of cobalt as the metal powering the world is uncertain. Conflicting predictions paint different landscapes in the upcoming years. Despite recent decreases in cobalt demand and prices driven by ESG initiatives, many experts believe that the demand for cobalt will continue to grow as the use of cobalt-based batteries increases. Some estimates show a growing global market for cobalt, with revenues and prices predicted to rise to $19.47 billion by 2030. In this case, the best solution to the pernicious effects of exploitative cobalt mines would be reforms of judicial entities aimed at purveying accountability and the adherence to stricter regulations.

Gradually parting from cobalt mining and switching to other economic activities could help reduce dependence in this sector without aggravating poverty or food insecurity.The government could seek to aid the transition into non-extractive activities by providing subsidies and regulations to incentivise growth in these sectors and create safe employment opportunities for those reliant on cobalt mining. The regions of North and South Kivu, for example, have great agricultural potential for domestic consumption and exports. Although investments in agriculture are already underway, the country’s vast arable land could be further exploited and operations could be developed to provide mine workers throughout the country with alternative and sustainable income sources. Focusing on providing formal employment in this sector is crucial to ensuring safe working conditions, as formal entities are binded by regulation.

The further development of the agricultural and mining sectors, alongside other activities such as foresting, would also require improved infrastructure to transport goods. The construction of roads, rail networks, and other forms of transport could also provide employment to those reliant on extractive activities. This alternative is not attractive to stakeholders in cobalt mines, many of whom have immense power and influence over the DRC. The government itself is investing in cobalt mining and continues to increase its involvement in the sector, meaning a full transition into non-extractive sectors in the near future is unlikely. The Congolese government could, however, consider undertaking the development of alternative industries in parallel to the development of cobalt mining activities.

Given the uncertainty around the future of cobalt, the DRC should consider a hybrid approach. Judicial reforms and stricter regulations will help Congolese citizens in any case. Further development of the mining sector without providing alternative employment opportunities would cause the country and its population to become increasingly dependent on cobalt. Although it remains unlikely due to global demand fuelled by tech advances, if ESG initiatives prevail before the DRC has properly addressed the concerns surrounding its mining industry, causing demand for cobalt to dwindle, millions of people will fall deeper into poverty. However, in a more likely scenario, the demand for cobalt will continue to increase throughout the foreseeable future; in this case, should the concerns around Congolese mines not be addressed, more and more Congolese will fall victim to abuses in the mining sector.