Ecotourism or Eco-trap? Navigating the Complex Terrain of Ecotourism Sustainability

Defined as ‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education’, ecotourism has been hailed as a sustainable intersection of environmental preservation and economic development. However, the ecotourism industry faces a myriad of complex challenges beneath the surface. This post-pandemic report examines the three key challenges that the industry faces, namely greenwashing and carbon emissions, the risks of economic dependence and weak financing, and finally, conservation risks and the disruption to local communities. While highlighting the progress towards more sustainable forms of tourism, ultimately, continued efforts are critical not only to ensure the financial security of the industry but also to dispel fears of greenwashing and avoid the ‘eco-trap’.

The ‘Green’ Dilemma and the Issue of Carbon Emissions

In many ways, the example of Costa Rica serves as an insightful case study into the ‘green’ dilemma that the ecotourism industry faces in attempting to promote a model of tourism with lower environmental impacts than conventional mass tourism. Renowned for its rich biodiversity and stunning natural landscapes, the country has embraced ecotourism to drive both ecological conservation and economic growth. From the building of eco-friendly hotels and lodges to promote waste management and energy efficiency, to the development of the Certification for Sustainability in Tourism (CST) scheme to counter attempts at greenwashing by enabling tourists access to reliable sustainability-related information, Costa Rica has undoubtedly shown that a sustainable tourism industry is possible. Its pioneering role in ecotourism is further evidenced when it comes to reducing the carbon footprint of aviation, with Costa Rican airline Nature Air becoming the world’s first airline to offset  100% of its carbon emissions from flight operations, achieved through domestic conservation programmes. 

Nevertheless, despite its accomplishments, Costa Rica grapples with allegations of greenwashing that carry serious implications for ecotourism globally. Notably, the CST, while innovative, often rates large multinational all-inclusive resorts with the same sustainability certification score as small, family-run lodgings. Furthermore, Costa Rica’s rising popularity as a tourist spot has placed significant strains on local infrastructure, posing threats to domestic wildlife. Unauthorised ‘ecolodges’ have sprung up in protected areas like the Gandoca-Manzanillo Wildlife Refuge and the Kekoldi Indian Reserve, leading to significant deforestation in some instances. With Costa Rica receiving 1.3 million visitors in the first half of 2023, surpassing the pre-pandemic levels seen in 2019, local infrastructure demand is likely only to increase further, with significant ramifications for the local environment. 

Furthermore, the country’s dependence on air travel for tourism, with approximately 90% of arrivals via air, provides additional evidence for greenwashing. While Nature Air illustrates the potential for sustainable aviation, it is crucial to remain sceptical about carbon offset schemes. These schemes can be accused of perpetuating the status quo, leading consumers to believe that a few additional charges suffice to combat climate change, rather than prompting significant changes in energy consumption habits. Their effectiveness remains in question, with Greenpeace going as far as to label carbon offsetting a ‘scam’ and a ‘licence to keep polluting’. Such claims are supported by alarming examples, including carbon credits purchases that ‘protected’ forests never under threat. Additionally, while each carbon credit traded is expected to represent a tonne of carbon emissions prevented or removed, measuring carbon dioxide absorption capacity from nature-based credits like forests remains an imprecise science. As such, a carbon credit might represent less than a tonne of CO2, casting doubt on the ability of offset schemes to truly neutralise the carbon footprint of the aviation industry. Projects like the Voluntary Carbon Markets Integrity Initiative are a step in the right direction, providing  ‘clear requirements, recommendations and supporting guidance to companies and other non-state actors on how they can credibly make voluntary use of carbon credits’. Nevertheless, even if the efficacy of carbon offsetting improves, countries like Costa Rica must do more than offset emissions if they are to be considered true ecotourism advocates; they must work towards preventing or reducing those emissions in the first place. 

In tackling the dual challenges of greenwashing and emissions, a few recommendations are pertinent. Firstly, combating greenwashing requires authentic certification and regulation, facilitating informed consumer decisions through transparent information. While Costa Rica’s CST scheme is a positive step, it highlights the risks of producing inconsistent results, underscoring the need for transparent, stringent systems with clear rationales. Secondly, without promoting travel alternatives to aviation, ecotourism initiatives risk becoming facades. Importantly, for many ecotourism destinations, air travel may be the only viable route. In this instance, it is noteworthy that long-haul flights of over 3,000km, though constituting only 9% of departing flights, generate 53% of the aviation industry’s carbon emissions. Discouraging these flights may require policy interventions like carbon taxes to incentivise consumers to travel to destinations closer to home or take alternative forms of travel. Connected to this is the need for ecotourism initiatives to encourage both the utilisation and further development of rail systems, bus and coach routes, as well as ridesharing schemes. Implementing these recommendations would empower ecotourism initiatives to fulfil their environmental objectives more effectively, thereby allaying concerns about greenwashing.

Economic Vulnerability

Ecotourism has proven to be particularly popular amongst developing countries, acting as an effective instrument of economic development by improving local employment rates and increasing funds for domestic investment and conservation efforts. Countries as geographically diverse as Kenya, Madagascar, Nepal, and Ecuador have all effectively employed ecotourism to boost these critical economic metrics. However, despite these benefits, ecotourism grapples with two key economic challenges: economic dependency and the lack of robust financing structures.

Firstly, ecotourism in developing countries is more sensitive to macroeconomic variables compared to developed countries, with geopolitical risk acting as a critical factor in realising the industry’s full potential. The COVID-19 pandemic vividly illustrated this vulnerability, given the sector’s dependency on consistent tourist inflows. The effects were felt most acutely by Pacific Island nations, with tourism receipts estimated to account for up to 20-30% of economic activity in Samoa and Tonga and the prime source of employment and foreign exchange for Fiji, Palau, and Samoa. The results were unsurprising: empty hotels led to mass layoffs, closures, and economic contraction. In this regard, it becomes paramount that developing countries pursuing ecotourism work to re-invest revenue from tourism in other industries, building economic resilience by diversifying the local economy. For example, Fiji is in a strong position to expand its manufacturing, commercial agriculture, and fishing industries. By diversifying their economies, these countries can mitigate potential economic shocks from fluctuating tourist numbers. 

Secondly, the scarcity of dedicated financial mechanisms for ecotourism is another critical challenge. Currently, there are no specialised banks for tourist investment, nor is the banking sector particularly aware of the sector’s specific needs. Even in countries like Pakistan and Iran, where a vast array of adventure, culinary, cultural and aesthetic experiences exist, the ecotourism industry remains relatively underdeveloped. The success of ecotourism initiatives in Peru, Kenya, and India owes much to effective public-private partnerships. However, a lack of similar convergences between national governments and the private sector has resulted in inadequate funding for the industry, as well as a failure to develop effective regulatory frameworks. Given that international tourism contributes towards 8% of global carbon gas emissions, ecotourism has great potential to support climate change mitigation and adaptation in this area, thus highlighting how it is essential to mobilise international finance, whether through multilateral institutions or private capital. Previous examples include the World Bank granting $8.7m in credit for ecotourism initiatives in Cameroon, contributing towards the development of infrastructure, vocational training, policy reforms, and an innovation grant to firms.

Conservation risks and the disruption of local communities

Ecotourism, while designed to bolster conservation and uplift local communities, can paradoxically inflict environmental harm and disrupt local life if unchecked. For instance, in 2017, Palau responded to escalating tourism-induced strain on its infrastructure and environment by introducing an ‘Eco-Pledge’ for incoming tourists. Visitors must commit to ‘tread lightly, act kindly, and explore mindfully’, a measure designed to mitigate issues like reef pollution, beach littering, chemical deposits, and threats to wildlife. The initiative emphasises the core but often overlooked value of education in ecotourism, underscoring that respect for local environment and culture should be a key objective of any such project. One means for ensuring that ecotourism initiatives support conservation is through strategic management of visitor numbers, particularly in vulnerable regions. Bhutan, for instance, requires visitors to partake in prearranged tours guided by an authorised agent, a successful tactic in safeguarding the local environment. 

Additionally, unchecked ecotourism can also disrupt local communities, both environmentally and socio-economically. The rise of short-term rental accommodations, facilitated through platforms like Airbnb, can inflate living costs and displace locals, while the conversion of natural habitats into ‘eco-lodges’ and ‘eco-hotels’ can cause ecological damage. Moreover, despite claims that ecotourism can economically support local communities, it often falls short in practice. In Kenya, for instance, approximately 70% of national parks are on Maasai indigenous land but few tourists are aware that the majority of the Maasai people receive no financial benefits from the industry and are excluded from accessing game reserves. Furthermore, ecotourism advertising may perpetuate cultural stereotypes. International campaigns for Kenyan ecotourism frequently feature Maasai warriors, yet arguably these images promote a reductive, regressive depiction of the Maasai neglecting the richness of their culture and daily lives. 

Addressing these challenges requires ecotourism initiatives to be actively involved in empowering local communities, promoting employment, local goods sales, and genuine cultural exchanges. Crucially, local consent must be obtained for the development of ecotourism. The evolution of the industry should not be dictated to by government policies or unrestrained business investment, but instead fostered through partnerships with local communities, aligning with the ideal of ecotourism as a truly empowering and sustainable sector.

Avoiding the ‘Eco-Trap’

While ecotourism constitutes a substantial improvement over conventional mass tourism, there is still a wide distance to traverse towards true sustainability. In order to successfully establish its relevance in the post-pandemic world and circumvent the pitfalls of an ‘eco-trap’, the industry must navigate a complex terrain with care and transparency, while keeping the principles of environmental conservation, social responsibility, and economic sustainability at its core. If the right measures are taken, ecotourism has the potential to evolve into a powerful tool as the world transitions towards a more sustainable future.