Antarctic Claims: Undisturbed claims and peaceful mass fishing - Norway
As part of London Politica’s Geopolitics on the Periphery Programme, our newest addition, the Antarctic Claims project is set to examine the geopolitical implications surrounding the division of the world’s least populated continent. This project consists of four articles organized in a series, each approaching the issue from the perspective of one or two countries that have any direct claims in the land. This is the third out of the four articles, discussing Norway’s involvement in Antarctica.
Norway is the only country on Earth with claims to land in both the Arctic and Antarctica. As a Polar nation and an Antarctic Treaty party, the country is determined to be a leading research, seafaring, environmental and industrial actor in the Antarctic while emphasizing peaceful coexistence with other territorial claimants in the region. Its long history with the region makes the main territories a part of national identity and culture, and Norway appears to successfully engage in the region to enhance knowledge of the effects of climate change through its comprehensive research center.
Territorial claims - a historical overview
Norway’s history of engagement in Antarctica traces back to its polar expeditions and the whaling activities that began in the 1890s. This activity grew into a major part of the Norwegian economy over the subsequent decades, fostering trade relations and employment. It was furthermore a positive influence on the shipbuilding industry, and inspired Norwegian seafaring in the nineteenth century.
The first pioneer era in the 1890s was initiated by the 1892 Jason expedition, followed by the Norwegian lead British Southern Cross Expedition to Cape Adare in 1898-1890 - the first expedition to settle over winter on mainland Antarctica. More famously, the pioneering explorer Roald Amundsen was part of the scientific Belgica Expedition, the first expedition to overwinter in Antarctic waters, and he would later return as the leader of the Fram expedition of 1910-1912. The expedition is a symbolic part of Norwegian history, highlighted by the planting of the Norwegian flag on the South Pole on 14 December 1911, taking large areas into Norwegian possession.
In 1927, the Norvegia I Expedition led by Captain Harald Horntvedt was initiated to annex any new found land in the region that was not occupied by other countries. The expedition successfully annexed Bouvet Island on 1 December 1927. This was followed by the annexation of Peter I Øy on 2 February 1929 during the second Norvegia Expedition.
Norway then dominated the whaling fields of the Southern Ocean in the first half of the 20th century, leading 27 of the 41 Antarctic whaling expeditions in the 1930/1931 season. This, however, became threatened by expansive policies by the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia that furthered territorial claims and concessions of seafaring.
In the following years, expeditions led by Lars Christensen would see Norway mapping large parts of the Antarctic mainland, giving Norway opportunities for annexation claims. There was active dialogue between the Norwegian and UK governments to avoid any conflict regarding Antarctic interests and territorial claims. Although the UK government was supportive of Norwegian territorial claims, the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs remained reluctant to assertively claim new territory until word came around of a German expedition to annex areas in Antarctica was underway in December 1938. In order to avoid this, the Norwegian government decided to carry out the annexation of what is today known as Dronning Maud Land in 1939. The land area of Dronning Maud Land covers 2.741.000 square kilometers, a sixth of the entire Antarctic continental area.
Climate change and research
Antarctica plays a central role in the global climate system. Melting icebergs are a risk for the rise of ocean water levels, and thus puts an important responsibility on the territorial claimants of land in Antarctica to govern the land in a responsible manner. Norway is an active party to the Antarctic Treaty, and supports the environmental protocols in the Treaty, having implemented a regulation on environmental protection and security in Antarctica into Norwegian law.
The ecosystem in Antarctica is under increasing pressure from the effects of climate change, environmental poison such as microplastics, and an increasing human presence through tourism and research activity. In 1976, Norway began its first official Antarctic research expedition - the NARE Expedition. It further solidified its presence as a research actor in the region in 1990 by establishing its permanent research station at Jutulsessen in Gjelsvikfjella. The research base Troll became known as a base for biological, glaciological and geological field research as well as a base for longitudinal covering of meteorological, atmospheric and seismological changes in the region. Data-collection from satellites in the polar sphere is also of interest to researchers, and the Kongsberg group is among one of the Norwegian actors that have set up satellite antennas on the Troll research base.
Fishing
After Norway ceded its Antarctic whaling operations in 1968, it became more invested in Antarctic krill fisheries. It is by far the largest actor in terms of krill fishing in the region: it was responsible for the catching of 245,421 tonnes out of the 450,782 tonnes caught in the 2020 fishing season. Krill is mainly caught and processed for use as omega-3 nutritional supplements, aquaculture feed and dog food, and Norwegian fisheries are leading the production of these marine assets in Antarctica.
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Current interests and claims
The Antarctic waters are home to a vast biodiverse marine ecosystem. The continent is therefore a central area for imposing stricter regulations for the conservation of its marine ecosystem. Apelgreen & Brooks (2021) conducted a to identify six major themes that provide insights into Norway's stance on Southern Ocean Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) within the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). These themes include Norway's position as a polar nation and a leader in Antarctic affairs, as well as its active support for international cooperation.
Additionally, Norway's status as a leader in the ocean industry and sustainability was emphasized, along with its belief in the critical role of scientific research in informing management decisions. Finally, Norway's perception of CCAMLR is that it can be understood as a resource management organization. These themes collectively help shed light on Norway's perspective on CCAMLR and its approach to Southern Ocean MPAs.
Although Norway is among the seven countries with overlapping territorial claims in Antarctica, none of the claims have been internationally recognized, and the Antarctic Treaty ensures no permanent settlement or mining in the region. Furthermore, military activity is strictly forbidden under the Antarctic Treaty. However, while previous official maps of Norwegian territorial claims of Dronning Maud on the mainland have been portrayed as a diffuse southern border line fading out into the south, the new map issued by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the 2015 white paper on Antarctica presented a firm geographical claim as far south as possible. The move signaled that Norway was taking initiative to enhance its presence and activity in the region.
Furthermore, in 2019 the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf recommended that Norway could claim 683.730 square kilometers of continental shelf outside of the Bouvet Island, which is an island of only 49 square kilometers. This successfully allows Norway to govern larger areas of the Antarctic region and engage in more fishing activity that could be profitable for the nation and its expertise in the industry.
Nevertheless, Norway has no overlapping claims with any of the other claimants that might create tension between them. In this regard, Norway has a simpler role in the governance of its territories in Antarctica than other countries covered in this article series. This means that Norwegian activity in Antarctica is carried out without difficulties and also facilitates good relationships with other countries that wish to carry out research activity in the region. Apart from the Norwegian research base, Dronning Maud Land hosts research stations from Germany, Japan, Russia and South Africa among others.